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Massive open online courses (MOOCs) have significantly impacted the landscape of online learning, providing access to education on a global scale. These courses, accessible via the web, enable widespread participation through video lectures, interactive forums, and automated assessments. The emergence of MOOCs has broadened the reach of high-quality education and initiated a reevaluation of teaching methodologies in the digital sphere [1]. MOOCs have become vital platforms for disseminating knowledge across various fields such as business, information technology, and data science to include complex disciplines like physiology, thus fostering lifelong learning among a diverse audience.
In this article, we provide an overview of the MOOC landscape. We will begin by describing a MOOC and then dive into trends in MOOCs, including participant demographic patterns, platforms that host MOOCs, and the instructional strategies employed. We will also describe the significant challenges associated with MOOCs and look ahead at what directions MOOCs are taking.
MOOCs are educational courses that are provided online and are open access. The term ‘Massive’ was appended since their enrollment can run into the tens of thousands of learners. There are some key features of MOOCs [2–4]:
When MOOCs were introduced in 2008, they were hailed as a disruptor of traditional education, having the potential to democratize education. 2012 was declared the “Year of the MOOC” by The New York Times [5]. Thirteen years on, in 2025, we are at the plateau of productivity on the Gartner Hype Cycle, having moved through the trough of disillusionment and the slope of enlightenment. MOOCs have not brought about the educational paradigm shift they seemed to originally promise, nor replaced traditional educational systems as was prophesied.
While MOOCs have not lived up to the hype, they have found a niche in non-formal and informal learning. Professionals take MOOCs for personal skill development, university programs supplement their traditional educational courses with MOOCs, and organizations use MOOCs to upskill workers. The flexibility MOOCs offer in course design and outcomes, such as providing micro-credentials that can be stacked toward other credentials, makes them attractive for non-formal and informal learning. And the numbers support this. In 2021, MOOCs enrolled 220 million students outside of China, offering more than 19,000 courses, 1,670 microcredentials, and 70 MOOC-based degrees [6].
Research on who is using MOOCs provides insights into the broad and diverse learners these courses attract.
In comparing MOOCs with traditional educational models, empirical studies reveal distinct differences in learning outcomes, cost-effectiveness, and student satisfaction. Research indicates that while MOOCs can achieve similar learning outcomes in knowledge-based disciplines, such as computer science and business, the absence of face-to-face interaction and personalized feedback often leads to lower student satisfaction and higher dropout rates compared to traditional settings [10]. Additional studies emphasize the cost-effectiveness of MOOCs, noting that they offer affordable access to education for millions globally, a significant advantage over the high costs associated with traditional education [11]. However, this financial accessibility comes at the expense of the structured support systems inherent in traditional classrooms, which are crucial for maintaining high levels of student engagement and satisfaction. These findings suggest that while MOOCs are an effective and economical alternative for knowledge dissemination, they may benefit from integrating elements of traditional education to enhance student satisfaction and retention.
Prominent platforms that offer MOOCs include Coursera, edX, Udacity, Udemy, Alison, and FutureLearn, each with unique features and partnerships. These platforms collectively advance online education, offering accessible, flexible, and diverse learning opportunities. They exemplify the changing educational landscape where digital platforms augment traditional learning methods, providing scalable and accessible educational options. Therefore, platforms like Coursera and edX have partnered with various universities like the University of Toronto, Duke University, and the University of Michigan to augment their traditional courses and offer credentialing pathways to traditional higher education. (For more details on major MOOC platforms and their features, we refer you to Table 1.)
|
Coursera |
edX |
Udacity |
FutureLearn |
Udemy |
Alison |
FOUNDED |
2012 by Andrew Ng and Daphne Koller from Stanford University |
2012 by Harvard University and MIT |
2011 by Sebastian Thrun, David Stavens, and Mike Sokolsky |
2013 by The Open University in the UK |
2010 by Eren Bali, Oktay Caglar, and Gagan Biyani |
2007 by Mike Feerick |
FOCUS |
Broad range of subjects from arts to technology |
University-level courses across a wide variety of disciplines |
Technology and vocational courses for the tech industry |
Community and discussion-based learning across various fields |
Business and technical courses to help companies, governments, and nonprofits |
Free educational courses in many subjects |
OFFERINGS |
Courses, specializations, professional certificates, degrees |
MicroMasters, professional certificates, online degrees |
Nanodegrees focusing on hands-on projects and mentorship |
Short courses, microcredentials, online degrees |
Courses, professional certificates |
Diploma programs, learning paths |
PARTNERSHIPS |
Universities and organizations worldwide |
Top universities like MIT, Harvard, and UC Berkeley |
Industry leaders like Google, AT&T, and Facebook |
Top international universities and specialized organizations |
Independent instructors |
Mostly self-produced courses by Alison |
UNIQUE FEATURES |
Diverse course offerings, financial aid available |
Nonprofit, high-quality academic content |
Industry-relevant, job-focused content |
Social learning platform, strong emphasis on community |
Self-paced learning, lifetime access to courses |
Focus on workplace-based skills |
AVAILABILITY |
Free courses available with optional paid certificates |
Free courses available; fees for certificates and degrees |
Primarily paid programs (Nanodegrees) |
Free access to courses; fees for certificates and upgrades |
Majority are paid courses; some free courses available |
Most courses available for free; certificates for a fee |
The pedagogical frameworks that underpin MOOCs are continually evolving. Research highlights the advantages of collaborative and participatory learning models that capitalize on the broad and varied base of MOOC participants [14]. However, most MOOCs utilize recorded lectures and quizzes and fail to capitalize on the participatory dimension.
Theoretical frameworks of online learning, such as the Community of Inquiry framework and years of research, have emphasized the need for social interaction in online courses [15]. Social presence has been related to student satisfaction and retention in online courses. Creating social interactions in a MOOC environment, however, can be challenging. Since they are primarily developed to be taken “anywhere, anytime” structured social interactions such as discussion boards can be challenging. Research on MOOCs has also shown that the effectiveness of MOOCs is closely tied to the level of learner participation and interaction they can foster [16].
To optimize learner interactions, educators and course designers employ a variety of instructional strategies aimed at creating a more engaging and dynamic learning environment. These strategies are crucial not only for maintaining learner interest but also for ensuring the educational value of MOOCs. Table 2 provides an overview of some of the different instructional strategies that have been adopted to create an interactive learning environment.
STRATEGY |
DESCRIPTION |
Interactive content design |
Incorporating interactive elements such as quizzes, simulations, and problem-solving activities within MOOC content is essential for keeping learners engaged. These elements can stimulate curiosity and encourage active participation by making the learning process more immersive [17]. |
Peer learning |
Facilitating opportunities for learners to interact through discussion forums, group projects, and peer review activities promotes a sense of community. This approach not only enhances the learning experience through collaboration but also supports a deeper understanding of course material through diverse perspectives [18]. |
Personalized learning paths |
Adapting course content and activities based on individual performance and preferences can lead to more personalized learning experiences. This tailoring of the learning journey helps in meeting each learner's unique needs, thereby increasing overall participation and satisfaction [19]. |
Regular and Constructive Feedback |
Providing learners with timely and constructive feedback on their performance is key to maintaining their engagement and motivation. This feedback offers valuable insights into their progress and areas for improvement, fostering a supportive learning environment [20]. |
Gamification techniques |
Gamification elements such as points, badges, and leaderboards introduce an element of competition and fun into the learning process. These techniques can significantly boost learner motivation and encourage continuous engagement with the course material [21]. |
(A)synchronous Interactions |
Offering a mix of real-time (synchronous) and flexible, time-independent (asynchronous) interactions allows learners to engage with the course material and their peers at their convenience. This flexibility is particularly important in accommodating the varied schedules of MOOC participants worldwide [22]. |
Learner-centered approach
|
Designing courses with a focus on learner autonomy and exploration can enhance participation. By prioritizing learner-centered pedagogies, MOOCs can encourage self-directed learning and critical thinking, making the learning experience more meaningful and engaging [23]. |
Multimedia and Rich Content Utilization |
Employing a variety of multimedia elements, including videos, podcasts, and infographics, caters to different learning styles and preferences. This diversity in content presentation can help in maintaining learner interest and facilitating deeper understanding [24]. |
In addition to the challenges posed by social interaction, MOOCs also face the challenge of assessing students within a self-directed learning environment. To navigate this, MOOCs employ a blend of assessment strategies that cater to large-scale, autonomous learning scenarios. Automated grading systems are widely utilized for objective assessments, such as quizzes and multiple-choice exams, providing immediate feedback that is essential for self-guided learning [25]. However, these systems may not fully evaluate complex reasoning or the application of knowledge to new situations. Peer assessment becomes valuable here, offering qualitative feedback on subjective assignments like essays and projects, leveraging the diverse experiences and viewpoints of the MOOC community [26]. This method, while fostering a collaborative learning culture, depends significantly on the peers' engagement levels and their ability to evaluate others' work critically. Self-assessment activities prompt learners to reflect on their learning journey, goals, and outcomes [27]. Although this fosters learner autonomy and self-awareness, its effectiveness is contingent on the individual's self-regulatory abilities and willingness to engage in introspection. These assessment methods, while scalable and supportive of MOOCs' self-directed learning ethos, may not always deliver the personalized, in-depth feedback necessary for deeper learning, underscoring an ongoing challenge for MOOC providers in enhancing educational outcomes.
A 2014 study explored the implementation of peer assessment in such large-scale, open-access courses. The study was conducted within the framework of MOOCs offered on platforms like Coursera and edX, where traditional one-on-one instructor feedback is impractical due to the massive number of participants. Peer assessment emerged as a scalable solution, allowing students to evaluate each other's work, particularly in assignments requiring subjective judgment, such as essays. This method not only helped in managing the large volume of assessments but also aimed to deepen student engagement by fostering a sense of community and collaborative learning. However, the study noted that the quality of feedback provided by peers was inconsistent, largely dependent on individual participants' critical thinking skills and their commitment to the evaluation process [28].
A study conducted in 2017 examined self-assessment within MOOCs, focusing on its potential to promote student autonomy and engagement in a self-directed learning environment. This study was set against the backdrop of MOOCs designed for professional development, where learners typically have varying levels of prior knowledge and self-regulatory skills. In such contexts, self-assessment activities were integrated into the course design to encourage learners to take ownership of their learning process. For example, students were prompted to reflect on their learning goals, monitor their progress, and evaluate their understanding of the course material. This approach was particularly relevant in MOOCs that aimed to cater to lifelong learners, many of whom pursued these courses to advance their careers or personal interests. The study found that while self-assessment could enhance learning outcomes by fostering greater reflection and self-regulation, its effectiveness was closely tied to the learners' intrinsic motivation and their ability to critically evaluate their own performance. This variability in self-assessment effectiveness highlighted the challenges in uniformly applying this strategy across a diverse and large MOOC audience.
While MOOCs have changed the educational landscape, offering learners worldwide access to high-quality education, the expansion of MOOCs brings a myriad of challenges. Technical difficulties, such as ensuring robust and scalable infrastructure, pose significant hurdles. The necessity for sophisticated technological setups to accommodate the massive influx of participants without compromising the quality of delivery is paramount [29]. Moreover, the issue of data security and privacy remains a critical concern, as the protection of personal information in an online environment is essential to maintain trust and encourage participation.
Pedagogical challenges further complicate the effective delivery of MOOCs. Designing courses that engage and retain learners throughout their duration is no small feat, given the diverse backgrounds and learning styles of participants. The lack of personalization and adaptability in course content exacerbates this issue, making it difficult to cater to individual learner needs and preferences. Additionally, the assessment and feedback mechanisms struggle to provide meaningful insights to learners, given the scale at which these courses operate. The reliance on automated grading systems and peer assessments often falls short of offering the in-depth feedback necessary for deeper learning [30].
The high dropout rate in MOOCs remains a significant challenge, with some studies reporting rates exceeding 90%. Addressing this issue requires understanding the factors contributing to student disengagement and developing strategies to mitigate them. A 2023 analysis utilized data from the HarvardX platform's PH278x course in the spring of 2013 to build predictive models based on learner characteristics and behaviors. The findings suggest that interventions tailored to these insights could significantly reduce dropout rates, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of MOOCs as educational tools [31]??????.
Accessibility issues highlight the digital divide, limiting the reach of MOOCs to those with adequate internet access and technological resources. Language barriers and the lack of culturally inclusive content further alienate non-English speakers and individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. Moreover, making MOOCs accessible to learners with disabilities remains an ongoing challenge, requiring continuous improvement in platform and content design to ensure inclusivity. Addressing these challenges necessitates a collaborative effort among educators, technology experts, and policymakers aimed at refining MOOC platforms and pedagogies.
Recent advancements in MOOCs reflect a dynamic intersection of technological innovation and pedagogical strategies aimed at enhancing accessibility, engagement, and personalization of learning experiences. The latest literature provides an overview of how MOOCs are evolving in response to technological trends and educational needs. MOOC 5.0 emerges as a significant evolution, integrating technologies like the internet of things (IoT), cloud computing, big data, AI/ML, blockchain, gamification, and the metaverse. These innovations aim to offer greater accessibility, enhance learner engagement through adaptive learning, and foster collaboration while ensuring security and promoting curiosity. Furthermore, the discourse on MOOCs has expanded to include critical reflections on their pedagogical impact over the past decade. Research has delved into MOOCs' ability to support diverse learning needs, improve engagement, and adapt to various educational contexts, emphasizing the importance of student-centered learning strategies [32].
The digital divide remains a significant challenge in the global implementation of MOOCs, impacting their ability to promote educational equity. Although MOOCs are designed to democratize education by providing free or low-cost learning opportunities worldwide, they often fall short in reaching underserved populations, particularly in regions with limited internet access and technological infrastructure. Research highlights that learners from low-income and rural areas are less likely to participate in MOOCs, exacerbating existing educational inequalities [1]. Furthermore, even when access is available, disparities in digital literacy and access to reliable technology can hinder learner engagement and success, contributing to lower completion rates. The issue is compounded by the fact that many MOOCs are designed with assumptions about learner self-motivation and autonomy, which may not align with the realities faced by individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds. To address these challenges, MOOC providers must implement strategies that go beyond mere access, such as providing offline course materials, enhancing digital literacy initiatives, and fostering supportive online communities that can bridge the gap for learners in resource-constrained environments. Additionally, integrating more explicit pedagogical frameworks that consider diverse learner needs and contexts can help make MOOCs a more effective tool for advancing global educational equity.
The landscape of MOOCs has undergone substantial evolution, significantly influencing the future of MOOCs. This future is characterized by technological advancements, pedagogical improvements, and increased accessibility, shaping a more inclusive, engaging, and personalized learning experience. Drawing on recent scholarly research, this discussion highlights key trends and anticipations regarding the trajectory of MOOCs. Technological advancements, including artificial intelligence (AI) and immersive technologies like virtual reality (VR), are poised to improve MOOCs, offering personalized learning paths and immersive educational experiences. Researchers propose MOOC 5.0, which integrates industry 4.0 technologies to enhance learner engagement, adaptive learning, and collaboration within MOOCs. Similarly, deep learning applications are expected to improve MOOC evaluation systems, predict student satisfaction, and enhance course design based on learner behavior.
Pedagogically, MOOCs are evolving to incorporate more interactive and learner-centered approaches. Studies demonstrate the positive impact of MOOCs on sustainable development and social enterprise growth, highlighting the potential of online learning to foster global knowledge exchange and capacity building. Moreover, the integration of project-based learning and collaborative environments within MOOCs emphasizes practical skills and peer learning. Accessibility remains a central focus, with efforts to reach underserved and diverse populations intensifying. Challenges such as internet connectivity and digital literacy are being addressed to ensure wider access to MOOCs. The future of MOOCs is marked by a commitment to leveraging technology for personalized, immersive, and accessible learning.
MOOCs represent a different option within the broad educational landscape by providing scalable solutions as they attempt to address the challenges of educational access and quality. They demonstrate the potential of technology to facilitate open, flexible, and participatory learning environments that meet the diverse needs and goals of learners around the world.
This evolution reflects a broader shift towards more inclusive and adaptive educational models, promising to extend the reach and impact of high-quality education globally.
Disclaimer: The opinions and assertions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Uniformed Services University or the Department of Defense.
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Eulho “EJ” Jung, Ph. D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Health Professions Education at the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. His research focuses on instructional design, clinical reasoning, and technology-enhanced learning in medical education. He serves on editorial boards for multiple journals and has authored more than 50 peer-reviewed publications on online learning, educational technology, and medical education.
Anita Samuel, Ph.D., is an assistant dean for graduate education and associate professor with the Department of Health Professions Education at the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. She publishes articles at the intersection of medical education, adult education, and online learning.
© Copyright is held by the owner/author(s). Publication rights licensed to ACM. 1535-394X/2025/07-3704730 $15.00 https://doi.org/10.1145/3748495.3704730
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